Persoalan korelasi antara wahyu dan akal merupakan persoalan yang tidak gampang terpecahkan. Debat mengenai hubungan antara kedua selalu menemui jalan buntu. Hal itu dialami oleh setiap orang yang hendak mengadakan proyek harmonisasi terhadap keduanya. Ada dua hal yang perlu di catat: Pertama, orang akan berbenturan dengan sikap penghayatan religiusitas yang cukup mendalam dan dibentuk oleh pandangan teologi tradisional. Kedua,muncul kekhawatiran atau kecemasan bahwa agama (wahyu) akan kehilangan nilai religiusnya. Saya kira itu pula yang dialami oleh Muhammad Ibn Rusyd dari Andalusia. Pertanyaan yang perlu dijawab dalam paper ini adalah apakah sikap Ibn Rusyd ini akan lebih mengindahkan Filsafat dan mengorbankan doktrin-doktrin agama? Apakah proyek untuk menyingkapkan kebenaran yang bisa diargumen secara filosofis ini?
Pengaruh pemikiran Islam ternyata cukup berkembang sangat pesat di dunia Barat. Harus dikatakakan bahwa alam pemikiran dari Arab mempunyai peranan penting bagi perkembangan filsafat bara (Abad pertengahan) selanjutnya. Pada tahun 800-1200, kebudayaan Islam berhasil memilihara warisan karya-karya para filsuf dan kalangan ilmuwan zaman Yunani kuno. Kaum Intelektual dan kalangan kerajaan Islam menerjemahkan karya-karya itu dari Bahasa Yunani ke dalam bahasa Arab. Maka, pada waktu para pengikut Islam mendatangi Eropa (melalui Spanyol dan Pulau Sisilia) terjemahan karya-karya para filsuf Yunani itu, terutama karya-karya Aristoteles, sampai ke dunia Barat.
Abu Al-Walid Muhammda ibnu Ahmad ibnu Muhammad ibnu Rusyd dilahirkan di Cordoba, Andalus pada tahun 510 H/ 1126 M, sekitar 15 tahun wafanya al-Gazali. Ia dikenal dengan Ibnu Rusyd, Sang Komentator Karya Aristoteles, dan sebagai “al-Hafid” (“sang cucu”).Di barat ia disebut dengan nama Averrois. Keturunanya berasal dari keluarga terhormat yang terkenal sebagai tokoh keilmuan. Kakek dan ayahnya mantan hakim di Andalus dan ia sendiri pada tahun 565 H/ 1169 M diangkat pula menajdi hakim di Sevilla dan Cordova. Karena prestasinya yang luar biasa dalam ilmu hukum, pada tahun 1173 ia dipromosikan menjadi ketua Mahkamah Agung, Qadhi al-Qudha di Cordova. Ibnu Rusyd dibesarkan dalam lingkungan ilmiah seperti di Cordova; ia belajar fiqih, tauhid, ilmu-ilmu keislaman lainnya. Di bawah bimbingan ayahnya Abu Al-Qasim, ia mengkaji dan menghafal kita al-Muwathta; Kitab induk madzhab Imam Malik. Ia juga belajar bahasa dan sastra, mempelajari ilmu kedokteran. Ibnu Rusyd kemudian beralih jabatan mempelajari Filsafat dan ilmu-ilmu awa’il. Ia kemudian menjadi pemimpin dalam bidang Filsafat di masanya. Ia kemudian kita kenal sebagai seorang filsuf besar dan pemberi komentar atas karya-karya agung Aristoteles di dunia filsafat Islam.
Adalah seorang Ibn Thufayl yang meminta Ibn Rusyd untuk membuat ringkasan dan juga komentar atas karya-karya Aristoteles. Untuk menggarap proyek besar ini ia mengerahkan segala kemampuan akal dan hatinya untuk menjelaskan segala pikiran dan maksud Aristotele yang samar-samar, dan juga untuk meringkas serta membuat komentar agar seluruh ide-ide Aristoteles dapat dengan mudah dipahami.
Thursday, May 21, 2009
Biografi dan Karya
Saturday, May 16, 2009
Ada 4 Tokoh Eksistensialist
Ada 4 tokoh eksistensialist yang akan dijadikan acuan:
A. Kierkegaard
Baginya Eksistensi adalah suatu kesatuan, kumpulan fakta-fakta, yang tak dapat begitu saja disamakan dengan sejumlah sistem rekonstruksi pemikiran rasional. Artinya eksistensi mencakup berbagai macam hal dalam sebuah keberadaan, bukan hanya yang temporal, tetapi juga yang kekal. Bukan hanya yang teratur tetapi juga yang tak teratur.
B. Heidegger
Menggunakan tiga lapisan terminologi dalam menerangkan arti kata eksistensi.
- Kata Jerman Desein. Melalui kata ini ia hendak mengungkapakan eksistensi sebagai sebuah usaha pertanggungjawaban manusia terhadap keberadaannya, Namur yang melampaui tindakan-tindakan kemanusiaan.
- Kata existentia kata jerman tradicional, yang mau mengungkapkan eksistensi sebagai keadaan berada secara pasif. Dimana eksistensi itu sudah berada dalam keberadaan itu sendiri.
- Kata Existenz, yang mau mengungkapkan kaitan antara eksistenis dan esensi, dimana ia menggambarkan eksistensi sebagai tempat terletaknya esensi. Atau esensi suatu benda terletak pada eksistensinya.
Ia melukiskan eksistensi sebagai sebuah keberadaan manusia yang konkret, sekarang dan di sini. Ia mengetenghakan dua gagasan sehuibungan dengan definisinya ini, yakni pour-soi (for-itself) dan en-soi (in-itself). Artinya ia melihat keberadaan manusia yang konkret sekarang dan di sini, sebenarnya dapat dipengaruhi kedua gagasan ini, yakni menjadi pour-soi, artinya menjadi subjek dimana ia menjadikan segala sesuatu bagi dirinya atau untuk dirinya (for-itself), dan juga menjadi en-soi, artinya dijadikan objek karena sesuatu di kenakan pada dirinya (in-itself). Eksistensi manusia terletak pada pour-soi ketika ia menjadi subjek dan bebas memperlakukan segala sesuatu bagi dirinya. Namun pada akhirnya iapun sadar betapa kebebasan itu serta keberadaanya dapat saling bertentangan secara rasio satu sama lain. Ketika kita berusaha menjadi pribadi yag bebas for-itself, ketika itu keberadaan kita juga terancam menjadi in-itself.
D. Jasper
Menerangkan eksistensi secara lebih sederhana sebagai keberadaan manusia itu sendiri. Di mana ketika kita hendak mencari tahu apa itu eksistensi, jawabannya ada pada keberadaan itu sendiri. Ia mengungkapakan eksistensi sebagai sebuah ungkapan tanpa refleksi dari kehidupan kita di dunia.
Ia mengungkapkan 3 point berikut:
- Existenz itu bukanlahbagian dari ada, melainkan potensi berada. Saya tidak memiliki diri saya, tetapi menjadi diri saya. Existenz itu adalah pemenuhan keberadaan.
- Existenz itu adalah kebebasan. Kebebasan yang bukan diciptakan sendiri, tetapi merupakan pemberian yang transendens. Artinya tanapa yang transendens Existenz itu tidak ada.
- Existenz selalu diri individu, tak tergantikan, dan tak pernah tergantikan.
Thursday, May 14, 2009
Karl Marx: Religion Detach Self Human being
Marx alone believe that capitalistic society it is true offer the happening of human being itself realization, but that thing is only happened to some people and non for all society. Marx later offer what referred as with communist society that in communist society each individual will enjoy active life, rich, and have a meaning of; even that thing are barbed coexisted, however itself realization remain to be enabled.
In alienation context, Marx differentiate at least there is three things which must be referred as by when people converse about alienation or detached that is alienation as no realize itself, as no autonomous and alienation related to role of capital to the labor. But here I will only try to comprehend detached deeper which confessed by Marx as alienation because no itself realization. Told by Marx that in religion there no forms realize itself truthfully. This matter because in human being religion shall only bow and unopened to be dialogued giving possibility for every individual to express itself. Religion do not develop man innermost intact, because human being only depend on sham authority which created its own.
According to Marx religion which only can punish his, surely capitalist clan creation religion to grind and lay down small people with pious doctrine. Where in that doctrine of people obliged by pious life processed heavy asceticism and accept grief voluntarily to be can win the day in heaven. Here Marx sees that that thing is only representing society creation, is specially referred as by Marx: power society, to strengthen its power hegemony to small society which led it
But in fact what becoming concern of Marx? Clear that Marx see in such religion action of people very depend on its own creation. Human being is not autonomous. Human being have to at one's feet of rule which have made of own. This can be explained like in course of production. Marx says that in course of production every worker will within call goods which is making of, so that he spatially can touch and treating him. But when that goods change hands, the worker shall no longer in command to the goods. In religion, according to Marx, when human being above the ground as free creature – without religion- he spatially can make order, sanction, rites and others; but when he enter and start to believe a[n religion, human being then bow with made rites and order it own. At the time of that's detached human being from his self. Human being throw itself go out and bow to the its own creation, which none other than beautiful shadow from creature which suffering, longing authority protecting it, but that happened exactly on the contrary that that authority progressively handcuff and add its grief.
Despitefully also, Marx see that religion give exemption grind namely with surrenderness attitude. This referred as by Marx as nature of fetishism referred at material object having the power of supernatural. Marx says that that religion fetishism emerge when illusion in life lifted to become doctrine which will do not want to peremptory by each individual. This Fetishism will bear what referred as by Marx as ‘sham expectation of oppressed people.’ Religion Fetishism makes society unable to make a move spatially to free itself from poorness clutch. This which progressively settle confidence of Marx mentioning religion is not other as society opium.
Saturday, May 9, 2009
The Nature of Love: Physical, emotional, spiritual
Some may hold that love is physical, i.e., that love is nothing but a physical response to another whom the agent feels physically attracted
to. Accordingly, the action of loving encompasses a broad range of behaviour including caring, listening, attending to, preferring to others, and so on. (This would be proposed by behaviourists). Others (physicalists, geneticists) reduce all examinations of love to the physical motivation of the sexual impulse-the simple sexual instinct that is shared with all complex living entities, which may, in humans, be directed consciously, sub-consciously or pre-rationally toward a potential mate or object of sexual gratification.
Physical determinists, those who believe the world to entirely physical and that every event has a prior (physical cause), consider love to be an extension of the chemical-biological constituents of the human creature and be explicable according to such processes. In this vein, geneticists may invoke the theory that the genes (an individual's DNA) form the determining criteria in any sexual or putative romantic choice, especially in choosing a mate. However, a problem for those who claim that love is reducible to the physical attractiveness of a potential mate, or to the blood ties of family and kin which forge bonds of filial love, is that it does not capture the affections between those who cannot or wish not to reproduce-that is,
physicalism or determinism ignores the possibility of romantic, ideational love-it may explain eros, but not philia or agape.
Behaviourism, which stems from the theory of the mind and asserts a rejection of Cartesian dualism between mind and body, entails that love is a series of actions and preferences which is thereby observable to oneself and others. The behaviourist theory that love is observable (according to the recognisable behavioural constraints corresponding to acts of love) suggests also that it is theoretically quantifiable: that A acts in a certain way (actions X,Y,Z) around B, more so than he does around C, suggests that he 'loves' B more than C. The problem with the behaviourist vision of love is that it is susceptible to the poignant criticism that a person's actions need not express their inner state or emotions-A may be a very good actor. Radical behaviourists, such as B F Skinner, claim that observable and unobservable behaviour such as mental states can be examined from the behaviourist framework, in terms of the laws of conditioning. On this view, that one falls in love may go unrecognised by the casual observer, but the act of being in love can be examined by what events or conditions led to the agent's believing she was in love: this may include the theory that being in love is an overtly strong reaction to a set of highly positive conditions in the behaviour or presence of another.
Expressionist love is similar to behaviourism in that love is considered an expression of a state of affairs towards a beloved, which may be communicated through language (words, poetry, music) or behaviour (bringing flowers, giving up a kidney, diving into the proverbial burning building), but which is a reflection of an internal, emotional state, rather than an exhibition of physical responses to stimuli. Others in this vein may claim love to be a spiritual response, the recognition of a soul that completes one's own soul, or complements or augments it. The spiritualist vision of love incorporates mystical as well as traditional romantic notions of love, but rejects the behaviorist or physicalist explanations.
Those who consider love to be an aesthetic response would hold that love is knowable through the emotional and conscious feeling it provokes yet which cannot perhaps be captured in rational or descriptive language: it is instead to be captured, as far as that is possible, by metaphor or by music.
Democracy in Democracy of Deliberative
Idea of Habermas about this deliberative democracy in fact will be abysmal of concept democratize in classic body politic. In democracy very emphasized by citizen participation, even that way constitution and state have to be imminent, for the sake of preventing the happening of mass tyranny. But, access communications opened and control to the government run. Communicative power of civil society runs to through mass media, responsive other and organization LSM to wild diskursus in society. Hence deliberative democracy is not a direct democracy, but a discursive control to the government.
According to Habermas "... in body politic understood by discourses form democracy shall no longer in citizen gathering able to identify visually. Democracy withdraws into cycling communications which impressing without subject from bodies and forum....." In this citation happened proceduralitation to the democracy. Its meaning that passing democracy discourses mechanism there is and form in course of communications.
When sovereign people? Deliberating theory mention moment happened public communications. Here communications forum have to become bigly. Democracy there is not only when people gather but also when mass media side public; also when there is discussion between citizens which care. Democracy is not a substance but as a national process, or is international, peripatetic continue to pass communications anonym stream. Conceived by this democracy proceduralitation. In its relation with state, sovereign people if state, namely institute legislative institute, executive, and yudikatif, continued by discursive with process forming of opinion and aspiration in public room.
Biography
Jurgen Habermas was born on 18 June 1229 in Rheinland-Westfalen Germany West, and become big in Gummersbach, a middle-weight town. Contrast among family atmosphere which is borjois-Protestan with society environment which is Roman makes sensitive Habermas to stress in society. From such atmosphere of Habermas produce fruit so much idea of sociologies.
Habermas starting from critical theory of Marx Horkheimer society and Theodor W. Adorno, he will "develop idea a triggered by society theory for the purpose of is practical". Although in the end he refuses some aspect from their theory especially about cultural pessimism of And Adorno Horkheimer. Critical Idea about society bring Habermas at one particular typical idea, namely he develop its idea in continuous discourses by is immeasurable of expert like Marx, Adorno, Hokheimer, and other social thinker.
From discourses about critical theory of society, Habermas come up with thinking of Democracy. One of Habermas masterpiece which paring many about deliberative democracy is Faktizitas Geltung und, which is translated in English: Between Facts Norms and: Contribution to Discourse Theory Law Democracy Book and of a have come to Habermas commitment evidence to democratic body politic. Und Geltung Faktizitas born from Habermas assumption that body politic cannot be obtained and also defended without radical democracy. In deliberative democracy, state shall no longer determine other political policies and law in room closed balmy ( isolation splendid), but civil society through organization and media which is vowel play very influence of significant in course of forming punish and that political policy. Public field become arena where invitation drawn up and instructed by discursive.
Tuesday, May 5, 2009
Demokrasi Deliberatif
Deliberatif (latin: deliberatio)=menimbang-nimbang atau konsultasi. Demokrasi bersifat deliberatif jika “proses pemberian suatu alasan atas suatu kandidat kebijakan publik diuji lebih dahulu lewat konsultasi publik atau lewat diskursus publik.” (F. Budi Hardiman, “Demokrasi Deliberatif: Model untuk Indonesia Pasca-Soeharto?”, dalam Basis, no. 11-12, Nov-Des 2004, hl. 18). Jadi, demokrasi deliberatif ingin membuka ruang yang lebih lebar bagi masyarakat.
Bagi Habermas usaha deliberasi seperti ini merupakan suatu jalan untuk merealisasikan demokrasi yang sebenarnya. Hal ini demi menjamin terlaksanakannya hukum dalam negara hukum. Teorinya ini adalah suatu upaya untuk merekonstruksi proses komunikasi dalam konteks negara hukum demokratis. Habermas melampaui negara hukum klasik yang menekankan bahwa produk hukum haruslah berasal dari kehendak umum (Rousseau). Mengapa ini perlu? Bagi Habermas agar hukum dapat berfungsi secara maksimal diperlukan legitimasi dari masyarakat. Menurutnya,
: “... Hukum dapat dianggap sebagai legitim jika warga negara yang terkait dapat mengubah perannya dari seorang subjek hukum dan menggunakan perspektif partisipan lainnya yang terlibat dalam proses pencapaian pengertian bersama tentang aturan-aturan di dalam kehidupan umum...” (BFN hlm. 461)
Menurut Habermas, “...Sahihlah norma-norma tindakan yang kiranya dapat disetujui oleh semua orang yang mungkin terkena oleh mereka sebagai peserta sebuah diskursus rasional...” Implikasinya adalah tugas forum demokrasi deliberatif adalah membiarkan setiap orang menghargai pendapat mereka sendiri, memberikan ruang bagi perbedaan pendapat; dengan demikian ada cukup banyak perspektif yang masuk. Individualitas sangat ditekankan. Pengandaiannya setiap individu dalam masyarakat memiliki kompetensi komunikatif.
Salah seorang komentator Habermas, Rainer Forst mengatakan bahwa “Demokrasi deliberatif berarti bahwa bukan jumlah kehendak perseorangan dan juga bukan kehendak umum yang menjadi sumber legitimasi, melainkan proses pembentukan keputusan politis yang selalu terbuka terhadap revisi secara deliberatif dan diskursif argumentatif.” Implikasinya yang terpenting adalah cara memperoleh keputusan. Dalam pandangan ini sebenarnya Habermas ingin bicara tentang sebuah prinsip, yakni tentang proseduralisme: legitimitas tidak terletak pada banyaknya suara tetapi cara pengambilan keputusan tersebut. Dalam paham proseduralisme, cara-caranya harus fair dan adil, untuk itu diperlukan diskursus yang terus menerus.
Habermas menekankan bahwa legitimasi suatu keputusan publik diperoleh melalui pengujian publik dalam proses deliberasi yang mengembangkan aspirasi rakyat dalam ruang publik dan proses legislasi hukum oleh lembaga legislatif. Habermas melihat bahwa sebenarnya dalam demokrasi deliberatif kekuasaan komunikatif memegang peranan penting. Kekuasaan yang bagaimana? Kekuasaan ini terbentuk dalam forum diskusi publik. Kekuasaan komunikatif menurut Habermas terbentuk lewat pengakuan faktual atas klaim-klaim keseluruhan yang terbukan terhadap kritik dan dicapai secara diskursif.
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Political Philosophy of Machiavelli: Human Being and Desire to Commands
Epoch Renaissance
New Growth of sciences, arts, artistic, and social life that is human being starts to think in new way, including also about itself. Humans being as Faber Mundi (one who done in world). Power shall no longer on the basis of religion criterion or moralities but on the basis of political criterion.
Modern characteristic of idea of Niccole Machiavelli:
Machiavelli does not start to philosophize by raising definition. But analyzing former human being with nature of and natural tendency of then leave to go to power analysis. And stability feather in one's cap of political community one nation, Italian nation
He tell “what reality”, none “what deservedly” there is. Natural human being is human being having passion conquer. That human being generally has the nature of negativity. There is stress and intelligence.
Machiavelli major mainstream and action “instinct” human being:
- Action: Human being having passion conquer, does not know thank, confuse, errant, its profit will own, fear to face danger.
- Mainstream: proud Human being itself easy cheats his self, difficult to so that secede from this disease. There is 2 form of government: And Monarchy republic (The Prince, chapter 1, page. 53). From this 2 form of government, best State Monarchy. State requires power to reach its target. And unity feather in one's cap of state determined by stable power and power which is stable to be determined by clever power.
Clever power: Soybean cake use the way of animal and way of human being (The Prince, chapter 18, matter. 99)
May not fear little face accusation do badness, if that badness requires to be conducted by for the sake of safety of state (The Prince, chapter 15, page, 92)
Politics and Moralities Two (2) different Region:
Experience indicate that all a success power conduct big things is them assuming easy to the promise – their promise, they know how to play tricks on people with ingenuity of it, and which finally win to them holding principal firmness of sincerity (The Prince, bab18,page. 99)
- • Autonomous politics: Agreeing all way of to protect power. All way of (deed and action) pettifogging, cruel, criminal, immoral can be agreed as far as that conducted by for the sake of its state.
- Moralities: Appliance to support power. Both for power to have the nature of goodness (like to forgive, liberally is, downright, human being, candid, pious) but at any times if required (in a state of emergency), he also have to earn to do which on the contrary (The Prince, chapter 18, page. 99 )
Limitation of Machiavelli
There is limitation conception about human being that is seeing human being from its weakness. Weakness of this human being is later completed by Thomas Hobbes become Theory Agreements State. Overruling values arrange ethic, religion, and society because fetching up all standing at practical importance, that is giving hold to power.
Conclusion:
Idea of political Philosophy of Machiavelli very controversy because freeing political philosophy from old world shackle (moralities role in politics). By freeing politics from moralities hence political to by itself become an autonomous value system, self-supporting and free from other value system. Idea of political Philosophy of Machiavelli is immoral and non immoral. Importance of State becomes size measure and highest value to take and determine policy in power.
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